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多幸感

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^ “Effects of exercise and physical activity on depression”. Ir J Med Sci 180 (2): 319?325. (2011). doi:10.1007/s11845-010-0633-9. PMID 21076975. "According to the 'endorphins hypothesis', exercise augments the secretion of endogenous opioid peptides in the brain, reducing pain and causing general euphoria. ... Based upon a large effect size, the results confirmed the endorphins hypothesis demonstrating that exercise leads to an increased secretion of endorphins which, in turn, improved mood states.
β-Endorphin, an endogenous μ-opioid receptor selective ligand, has received much attention in the literature linking endorphins and depression or mood states. ... exercise of sufficient intensity and duration can increase circulating β-endorphin levels. ... Moreover, a recent study demonstrated that exercise and physical activity increased β-endorphin levels in plasma with positive effects on mood. The researchers reported that, independently of sex and age, dynamic anaerobic exercises increased β-endorphin, while resistance and aerobic exercises seem to only have small effects on β-endorphins. ... The results showed that mood tends to be higher in a day an individual exercises as well as that daily activity and exercise overall are strongly linked with mood states. In line with these findings, a recent study showed that exercise significantly improved mood states in non-exercises, recreational exercisers, as well as marathon runners. More importantly, the effects of exercise on mood were twofold in recreational exercisers and marathon runners."
^ “A renaissance in trace amines inspired by a novel GPCR family”. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 26 (5): 274?281. (2005). doi:10.1016/j.tips.2005.03.007. PMID 15860375. "The pharmacology of TAs might also contribute to a molecular understanding of the well-recognized antidepressant effect of physical exercise [51]. In addition to the various beneficial effects for brain function mainly attributed to an upregulation of peptide growth factors [52,53], exercise induces a rapidly enhanced excretion of the main β-PEA metabolite β-phenylacetic acid (b-PAA) by on average 77%, compared with resting control subjects [54], which mirrors increased β-PEA synthesis in view of its limited endogenous pool half-life of ~30 s [18,55]."
^ “The potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases”. Rev Recent Clin Trials 2 (1): 3?19. (2007). doi:10.2174/157488707779318107. PMID 18473983. "It has also been suggested that the antidepressant effects of exercise are due to an exercise-induced elevation of [phenethylamine] [151]."
^ “Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music”. Nat. Neurosci. 14 (2): 257?262. (2011). doi:10.1038/nn.2726. PMID 21217764. "Music, an abstract stimulus, can arouse feelings of euphoria and craving, similar to tangible rewards that involve the striatal dopaminergic system. ... the caudate was more involved during the anticipation and the nucleus accumbens was more involved during the experience of peak emotional responses to music. ... Notably, the anticipation of an abstract reward can result in dopamine release in an anatomical pathway distinct from that associated with the peak pleasure itself."
^ a b “Music and the nucleus accumbens”. Surg Radiol Anat 37 (2): 121?125. (March 2015). doi:10.1007/s00276-014-1360-0. PMID 25102783. "The functional connectivity between brain regions mediating reward, autonomic and cognitive processing provides insight into understanding why listening to music is one of the most rewarding and pleasurable human experiences. Musical stimuli can significantly increase extracellular DA levels in the NA. NA DA and serotonin were found significantly higher in animals exposed to music. Finally, passive listening to unfamiliar although liked music showed activations in the NA. ... Music can arouse feelings of euphoria and craving, similar to tangible rewards that involve the striatal DAergic system [16]. Reward value for music can be coded by activity levels in the NA, whose functional connectivity with auditory and frontal areas increases as a function of increasing musical reward [19]. ... Listening to pleasant music induces a strong response and significant activation of the VTA-mediated interaction of the NA with the hypothalamus, insula and orbitofrontal cortex [1].
Conclusions
Listening to music strongly modulates activity in a network of mesolimbic structures involved in reward processing including the NA. Music, acting as a positive pleasant emotion, increases NA DAergic activity. Specifically the NA is more involved during the experience of peak emotional responses to music. Reward value of music can be predicted by increased functional connectivity of auditory cortices, amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal regions with the NA. Further research is needed to improve our understanding of the NA role in the influence of music in our lives."
^ “Musical pleasure and reward: mechanisms and dysfunction”. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1337 (1): 202?211. (March 2015). Bibcode: 2015NYASA1337..202Z. doi:10.1111/nyas.12677. PMID 25773636. https://zenodo.org/record/3456475. "Most people derive pleasure from music. Neuroimaging studies show that the reward system of the human brain is central to this experience. Specifically, the dorsal and ventral striatum release dopamine when listening to pleasurable music, and activity in these structures also codes the reward value of musical excerpts. Moreover, the striatum interacts with cortical mechanisms involved in perception and valuation of musical stimuli. ... Development of a questionnaire for music reward experiences has allowed the identification of separable factors associated with musical pleasure, described as music-seeking, emotion-evocation, mood regulation, sensorimotor, and social factors. Applying this questionnaire to a large sample uncovered approximately 5% of the population with low sensitivity to musical reward in the absence of generalized anhedonia or depression. Further study of this group revealed that there are individuals who respond normally both behaviorally and psychophysiologically to rewards other than music (e.g., monetary value) but do not experience pleasure from music despite normal music perception ability and preserved ability to identify intended emotions in musical passages."
^ “Evidence against involvement of endorphins in sexual arousal and orgasm in man”. Archives of General Psychiatry 34 (10): 1179?1180. (1977). doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1977.01770220061006. PMID 199128.
^ “Fasting in mood disorders: neurobiology and effectiveness. A review of the literature”. Psychiatry Research 209 (3): 253?258. (2013). doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.12.018. PMID 23332541. ⇒オリジナルの19 July 2018時点におけるアーカイブ。. https://web.archive.org/web/20180719195929/http://www.hal.inserm.fr/inserm-00789122/file/PRISMA_FLOW_DIAGRAMM_FASTING_07_12_12.pdf 2018年11月14日閲覧。.
^ 世界保健機関 (1994) (pdf). ⇒Lexicon of alchol and drug term. World Health Organization. pp. 47, 49. ISBN 92-4-154468-6. ⇒http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/9241544686.pdf ⇒（HTML版 introductionが省略されている）
^ Ghelardini, C (2015). “The pharmacological basis of opioids”. Clinical Cases in Mineral and Bone Metabolism (3): 219?21. doi:10.11138/ccmbm/2015.12.3.219. PMC 4708964. PMID 26811699. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4708964/.
^ “ ⇒Cannabis drug profile”. 欧州薬物・薬物依存監視センター (EMCDDA) (Update: 08 January 2015). 2016年12月28日閲覧。
^ H. Valerie Curran; Philip Wiffen; David J. Nutt; Willem Scholten=. ⇒Cannabis and Cannabis Resin Pre-Review Report (pdf) (Report). DrugScience. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-5272-0260-3. 2016年12月28日閲覧。
^ Debruyne, Daniele; Le Boisselier, Reynald (2015). “Emerging drugs of abuse: current perspectives on synthetic cannabinoids”. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation: 113. doi:10.2147/SAR.S73586. PMC 4622447. PMID 26543389. https://www.dovepress.com/emerging-drugs-of-abuse-current-perspectives-on-synthetic-cannabinoids-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-SAR.

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